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Romijn HJ, Hofman MA, Gramsbergen A. At what age is the developing cerebral cortex of the rat comparable to that of the full-term newborn human baby? Early Hum Dev. 1991;26(1):61–7. Although cortical and subcortical maturation follows specific spatial trajectories, the functional relevance of these anatomical changes remains understudied. Moreover, increasing evidence suggests microglia to play a crucial role in the elimination of synapses. The potential state-dependent role of microglial-dependent synapse elimination during adolescence remains to be examined. Frank MG, Morrissette R, Heller HC. Effects of sleep deprivation in neonatal rats. Am J Physiol. 1998;275(1 Pt 2):R148–57.
Recent work has shown that caffeine consumption in adolescent rats exerts short-term stimulating effects and can alter the developmental trajectory of SWA [ 10]. Moreover, caffeine alters behavioral and structural markers of maturation [ 10]. These caffeine-induced lasting morphological changes might be due to alterations in sleep regulatory processes, such that altering sleep-wake regulation by stimulants like caffeine may affect synaptic plasticity. Sleep Is Needed for Plasticity Hypothesis: PGE 2 can cross the blood-brain barrier and act on excitatory G q EP 3 receptors on thermoregulatory neurons in the hypothalamus. This activation triggers an increase in heat-generation and a reduction in heat-loss to produce a fever. NSAIDs prevent the generation of PGE 2 thereby reducing the activity of these neurons. With infectious energy, honesty, and humour, The Big O gives women a space to celebrate topics and conversations that have historically only been whispered behind closed doors. This book will inspire you – and educate you – on how to communicate with your partner (and yourself!) to have the best sex of your life, as well as debunking taboos and delving deep into important topics that need bringing into the spotlight; from masturbation and sex toys, to kinks, virginity, sexual identities, and sex positions you won’t know how you ever lived without. Deoni SC, Dean 3rd DC, O’Muircheartaigh J, Dirks H, Jerskey BA. Investigating white matter development in infancy and early childhood using myelin water faction and relaxation time mapping. Neuroimage. 2012;63(3):1038–53. Maret S, Faraguna U, Nelson AB, Cirelli C, Tononi G. Sleep and waking modulate spine turnover in the adolescent mouse cortex. Nat Neurosci. 2011;14(11):1418–20. This two-photon microscopy study in adolescent mice shows that synaptic strength is modulated by behavioral state, such that waking is associated with a net increase in cortical spines, while sleep is associated with a net spine loss.
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Marshall L, Helgadottir H, Molle M, Born J. Boosting slow oscillations during sleep potentiates memory. Nature. 2006;444(7119):610–3. Touchette E, Petit D, Seguin JR, Boivin M, Tremblay RE, Montplaisir JY. Associations between sleep duration patterns and behavioral/cognitive functioning at school entry. Sleep. 2007;30(9):1213–9. Brain activity during sleep undergoes dramatic changes across the life span. The preterm infant EEG is characterized by the alternation between high-amplitude burst “on” periods followed by low-amplitude burst “off” periods ( tracé discontinu), which evolves to high-voltage slow-wave activity alternating with low-voltage activity bursts ( tracé alternant) shortly after birth [ 1]. Soon thereafter, rapid-eye-movement (REM)-like sleep (active sleep) appears. In the course of the first years of life, the amount of active sleep diminishes while non-rapid-eye-movement (non-REM)-like sleep (quiet sleep) becomes the predominant state [ 2, 3]. Jouvet-Mounier D, Astic L, Lacote D. Ontogenesis of the states of sleep in rat, cat, and guinea pig during the first postnatal month. Dev Psychobiol. 1970;2(4):216–39. Lenroot RK, Giedd JN. Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(6):718–29.
Kayser MS, Yue Z, Sehgal A. A critical period of sleep for development of courtship circuitry and behavior in Drosophila. Science. 2014;344(6181):269–74. A convincing investigation demonstrating that sleep promotes normal brain development in Drosophila by experimentally hyperactivating a sleep-promoting neural circuit, which led to sleep loss and later deficits in adult behavior. The effects of sleep on performance are conveyed primarily during non-REM sleep. In adults, slow oscillations in particular are thought to be actively involved in cortical plastic processes associated with learning [ 77•, 78, 79]. During vulnerable periods of life, sleep may be important for plastic processes associated with neurodevelopment (see also the next paragraph). Epidemiological studies show that disturbed sleep throughout preschool and the school age years is associated with psychosocial, somatic, and medical problems [ 80]. Moreover, sleep problems in childhood predict later psychological and social problems over and above demographic factors [ 81]. While REM sleep might be of importance for performance benefits during early cortical development [ 82], SWA during non-REM sleep was suggested to contribute to reorganization processes in synaptic connections at a later age [ 83]. Human studies concerning the involvement of sleep in neuroplasticity during development, however, remain correlative. Yang G, Gan WB. Sleep contributes to dendritic spine formation and elimination in the developing mouse somatosensory cortex. Dev Neurobiol. 2012;72(11):1391–8. Frank MG, Heller HC. Development of diurnal organization of EEG slow-wave activity and slow-wave sleep in the rat. Am J Physiol. 1997;273(2 Pt 2):R472–8. The homeostatic regulation of sleep is developed by P24 in rats, as shown in a maximum of SWA at light onset and a reduction thereafter [ 21]. Also, prolonged waking elicits an increase in SWA in rats by this age, while younger rats show a compensatory increase in sleep duration instead of increased SWA [ 22]. In mice, SWA increases during recovery sleep only after P24, while a decline in SWA across baseline sleep and an increase during waking is already apparent at P19 [ 23].Baloch S, Verma R, Huang H, Khurd P, Clark S, Yarowsky P, et al. Quantification of brain maturation and growth patterns in C57BL/6J mice via computational neuroanatomy of diffusion tensor images. Cereb Cortex. 2009;19(3):675–87. Jenni OG, Borbely AA, Achermann P. Development of the nocturnal sleep electroencephalogram in human infants. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2004;286(3):R528–38. Holtmaat A, Svoboda K. Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10(9):647–58.
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